英语专业毕业文写作格式明

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英语专业毕业论文写作格式说明

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4.因为各种举例包含有句子,有短语,也有段落,要采用统一的相应的格式.书名用斜体,诗歌,文章名用引号,但自成一书的诗集及史诗按书名处理,用斜体.详见论文范文后面的专门说明.

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毕业论文

题目名称:思维方式差异对英汉翻译的影响

题目类型:研究论文

学生姓名:张山

院(系):外国语学院英语系

专业班级:英语11001

指导教师:郑厚尧

辅导教师:

时间:2016年11月8日至2016年月日

英汉思维差异对翻译的影响

张山

总计:毕业论文45页

指导教师:郑厚尧

评阅教师:李璐

完成日期:2016年月日

TheEffectofThinkingModesonTranslationBetweenEnglishandChinese

AThesis

PresentedtotheSchoolofForeignLanguages

YangtzeUniversity

ByZhangShan

InPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirements

FortheDegreeof

BachelorofArts

May,2016

ThesisSupervisor:ZhengHouyao

毕业论文目录

指导老师审查意见等等等等等等等等等等I

评阅老师评语等等等等等等等等等等等II

答辩会议记录及成绩评定等等等等等等等等等III

任务书等等等等等等等等等等等等等IV

文献综述等等等等等等等等等等等等V

中文摘 要等等等等等等等等等等等

英文摘 要等等等等等等等等等等等等XIII

正文目录等等等等等等等等等等等等XIV

正文等等等等等等等等等等等等等1

#27492;沟通,协商,谋求一致,达成协议的过程.在商务谈判中如何提问对谈判者来说是至关重要的.当然,谈判策略的配合使用,掌握常见的谈判策略这是前提.掌握了谈判中提问的策略与语言技巧,也就抓住谈判的主动权,因此本文谈谈商务谈判中提问策略.另外,语言在谈判中的中心地位不可忽视.在谈判中准确运用语言非常关键.因此,商务人员在谈判过程中应注重谈判的语言技巧.商务谈判中通过精妙的提问可以了解对方的想法和意图,掌握更多的信息,同时"问"也是表达自己情感的手段,促进双方的沟通.如何"问"是很有讲究的.选择正确的提问策略,不仅可以引起双方的讨论,还可以控制谈判的方向,掌握谈判的主动权.本文就如上这些问题,在总结前人的成果和自己的思考下,浅谈一下自己的认识.

有关商务谈判的研究及其主要论点

(主体是综述的基础和核心部分.主要通过提出问题,分析问题,综合前人文献中提出的理论和事实,比较各种学术观点,阐明所提问题的历史,现状及发展方向等.一般可以按照题目大小,内容多少及逻辑关系,安排不同层次的大小标题.按论点和论据组织材料.从不同角度阐明主体中心内容.主体部分所引用的资料应注意以下问题:能说明问题,并且具有一定的理论和实践意义,资料真实可靠,既新颖又具有代表性,能反映问题的发展阶段以及阶段性成果.主体字数一般在2500字左右.)

2.1常见的商务谈判策略

2.1.1国际商务谈判的基本原则

对外商务谈判是指国际商务活动中不同的利益主体为了达成协议或交易,而就其各项条件进行协商的过程.谈判人员必须掌握相应的技巧和策略才能谈判中追求利益最大化,达到事半功倍的成效.首先就要遵守一定的国际商务谈判的基本原则.(刘园,1999)

(1)平等互利原则.平等互利是当代国际商务谈判中最基本的原则,谈判的目的在于寻求一种双赢.(HarryMills,1999)

(2)客观合作原则.谈判就是为了解决问题与他方进行磋商,通过谈判,双方都在寻找一种比以前更好的情形.这需要双方共同的合作.

(3)灵活变通原则.任何谈判都是一个不断思考,交换意见和彼此让步的过程.

2.1.2国际商务谈判策略应用

从不同的角度和不同的侧重点情况下,国际商务谈判策略的分类和描述是不同的.不过值得统一的就是,无论应用那种谈判策略,过程基本是一致的.谈判之前拟订谈判目标,明确谈判最终目的,并制定谈判策略.每一次谈判都有其特点,因此必须制订特殊策略和相应战术.因此,在谈判中采取合作与竞争相结合的策略会促使谈判顺利结束.这就要求我们在谈判前制定多种策略方案,以便随机应变.(刘园,1999)

(1)把商务谈判看作一种竞争(丁志明,2016)

a.投石问路,主动出击

发问在谈判中扮演着十分重要的角色.发问有助于信息的搜集,引导谈判走势,诱导对方思考,同时对方的回答也可相对地形成有效的刺激.

b.绵里藏针,出奇制胜

c.激将法.激将法实质就是针对项目主要负责人或者主谈,让对方主将激动而丧失理智.

(2)把商务谈判看作一种合作

平等互利是当代国际商务谈判中最基本的原则,谈判的目的在于寻求一种双赢.客观合作,就是为了解决问题与他方进行磋商,通过谈判,双方都在寻找一种比以前更好的情形.这需要双方共同的合作.(HarryMills,1999)

(3)把商务谈判看作一种艺术

a.以礼待人,合作共赢.正如谈判专家CohenHerbert所说,成功的谈判"并非一方独得而赢,而是双方各有所得而赢".礼貌用语的具体策略有以下几点.

*间接提问.提问越间接,表达越礼貌.

*设身处地.这种语言表达是通过说话人表示理解和关心对方的问题,来改善谈判气氛的巧妙用法.

b.委婉表达.国际商务谈判中有些话语虽然正确,但对方却觉得难以接受.因此,在国际商务谈判中,需要使用委婉语来达到特殊的语用效果. c.妙语解颐,巧妙应答对于谈判过程中对方提出的问题.我们有时不便向对方传输自己的信息,对一些问题不愿回答又无法回避.所以巧妙的回答甚至还能活跃会场气氛,有利于谈判的顺利进行. d.模糊用语.我们可以闪烁其词,避重就轻,以模糊应对的方式解决. e.含蓄幽默.幽默的话语有助于创造和谐的谈判气氛,可以传递感情,暗示意图,可以使批评变得委婉友善,增强辩论的力量,避开对方的锋芒,是紧张情境中的缓冲剂,同时可以为谈判者树立起良好的形象. f.条件式回答.当对方向你提出非分要求时,拒绝并不是唯一的方式———你可以答应对方的要求,但一定要限定一个对方不可能接受的条件,这种反击会让对方知难而退,自己不战而胜.(丁志明,2016)

(4)恭维有道.以下几点需要重视:

第一,从态度上要真诚.

第二,从方式上要尊重谈判对方人员的个性,考虑对方个人的自我意识.

第三,从效果上要重视被赞美者的反应.如果对方有良好反应,可再次赞美,锦上添花,如果对方显得淡漠或不耐烦,我方则应适可而止.

谈判是是一种艺术,而语言艺术的巧妙应用无疑将为一场谈判加上成功的砝码.语言运用更多的时候是综合运作,相互配合.运用之妙,存乎一心.语言的艺术必将为谈判锦上添花,为营造双赢发挥作用.(HarryMills,1999)

2.2语言在谈判中的中心地位

商务谈判是经济贸易合作的双方为达成某种交易或解决某种争端而进行的协商洽谈活动.作为一种协调行为过程,谈判是双方观点互换,情感互动,利益互惠的人际交往活动.谈话的方式与言谈技巧,对于谈判的进程与结果起着举足轻重的作用.商务谈判中的倾听可以让谈判者获取对手在该起谈判中的目的,意图和具体的做法,获取他们不断变化的看法和其他信息.商务谈判中的"说"就是指谈判者正确地使用语言和语言技巧有效地表达本方的观点,意见,达到说服对方的目的,它是商务谈判的核心环节.(何晓琳,2007)

谈判者如果能提高自己的话语修养,他们是能够在特定谈判语境中清晰地表达出本方的观点的.谈判双方应该要保持一种良好的人际关系,这就是谈判话语的语旨了.谈判者需要合理安排谈话的内容,先说什么,中间说什么,后说什么,这都要有计划.(何晓琳,2007)

使谈判气氛顿时活跃起来.即使在唇舌剑的论辩和激烈竞争的讨价还价中.幽默的言语也能极为有利地批驳谬误,明辨是非,说服对方.可以说幽默的语用功能在于创造良好的谈判气氛,传递感情,使谈判人员在心理上得到了享受,提高谈判的效率.(刘园,1999)

2.3基本的提问策略

谈判中的提问是摸清对方的真实需要掌握对方的心理状态表达自己观点意见进而通过谈判解决问题的重要手段.既然如此谈判者就要灵活艺术地运用提问的技巧.

2.3.1提问的时间与场合

提问的时机也很重要.把握提问的时机还表现为,文谈中出现某一问题时,应该待对方充分表达之后再提问.过早过晚提问会打断对方的思路,而且显得不礼貌也影响对方回答问题的兴趣.掌握问话的时机还可以控制谈话的引导方向.如果你想从被打岔的话题中回到原来的话题上那么你就可以运用发问加果你希望别人能注意到你提的话题也可以运用发问,并借连续提问把对方引导到你希望的结论上.(金清子,2016)

2.3.2发问人和发问对象

明确提问内容.提问的人首先应明确自己问的是什么.如果你要对方明确地回答你那么你的问话也要具体明确.对方坦率耿直,提问就要简洁对方爱挑剔善抬杠提问就要周密对方羞涩,提问就要含蓄对方急躁提问就要委婉对方严肃提问就要认真对方活泼提问可诙谐.(秦立,2007)

2.3.3发问的视角

因为根据不同的发问对象性格,问话的方式很重要.提问的角度不同引起对方的反应也不同得到的回答也就不同.在谈判过程中对方可能会因为你的问话而感到压力和烦躁不安.这主要是由于提问者问题不明确或者给对方以压迫感威胁感.这就是问话的策略性没有掌握好.同时在提问时要注意不要夹杂着含混的暗示.避免提出问题本身使你陷入不利的境地.(金清子,2016)

2.3.4发问的措辞

问话的措词也很重要因为发问容易使对方陷入窘境引起对方的焦虑与担心.因此,在措词上一定要慎重不能有刺伤对方为难对方的表现.(金清子,2016)

2.3.5发问的次数,频率与声调

谈判是需要一定的氛围烘托的支持的,因此发问的次数,频率与声调等等都直接影响着谈判的结果,使你是谈判中的决策人物,核心人物,也不要显示自己的特殊地位,表现出咄咄逼人的气势否则问话就会产生相反的效果了.


谈判是知识,智慧和才华的较也是谋略的实施与演绎.语言则是作为实施与演绎谋略的一种工具而存在于谈判之中.可以说没有谋略作为内涵的语言必然是单薄而又苍白的谈判语言艺术之所以光彩照人,也就在于它那变幻莫测的谋略内涵.(秦立,2007)

2.4提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用

当然提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用也决定着谈判目的的圆满实现和谈判的成功.任何一个系统的运行都离不开有机的融合,谈判策略的配合使用也是这样.由于谈判者来自不同的国家和地区,有着不同的社会文化背景和政治经济体制,人们的价值观念,思维方式,行为方式,语言及风俗习惯各不相同.从而使得影响谈判的因素大大增加,导致谈判更为严重复杂,难度更大.稍有不慎,就会面临挫折和失败谈判中,差之毫厘,在实践中就会谬以千里,甚至给国家和企业造成重大的损失!(刘园,1999)所以在实践中必须慎重对待每一场谈判,尤其重视提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用.

3结论

(概括主体的主要内容,总结主体的情报资料,并对上述研究成果和论点进行简单的评论,指出当前存在的问题及今后发展趋势和方向.如有必要,也可以提出作者的观点,倾向和建议.总结一般以100-200字为宜.)

随着我国经济的飞速发展,尤其是加入WTO之后,我国与世界各国的经贸活动不断增加,所面临的国际商务谈判随之增多.中方当事人,为了与外方达成某项交易,或实现某项经济合作,如商品写卖,技术引进与转让,投资,企业并购等,就涉及彼此利益的标的物的交易条件,用双方都能听懂的语言———大多数情形下是运用英语,进行沟通,磋商,洽谈,最终达成各方均能接受的协议,实现交易的目标或成功的合作.这种国际商务谈判是十分典型的言语交际活动,英语在其中发挥着重要的作用,也就是说,谈判双方往往要借助英语这一国际性工作语言来完成谈判任务.英语是国际商务谈判的主要工作语言,提问是谈判中的一个重要环节,是获取信息的重要方式,有着不可忽视的作用.因此,能否有效运用提问的基本原则,提问方式和提问策略,关系到是否能圆满地完成国际商务谈判任务.商务谈判中,重视和灵活运用发问的技巧,到底哪些问题可以问,哪些问题不可以问,为了达到某一个目的应该怎样问,以及提问的时间与场合,发问人,发问对象,发问的视角,发问的措辞,发问的次数与频率,声调等等,有许多基本常识和技巧需要了解和掌握.同时,提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用也决定着谈判目的的圆满实现和谈判的成功.这也是作为国际商务谈判人士必不可少的素质.

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摘 要

思维,语言与文化有着紧密的联系.语言是思维的载体,思维是语言的内容,这一切都统一在文化的总框架内.中西思维方式的差异一直是国内外学术界关注的重点研究课题.国内贾德江,刘宓庆,西方的R.Kaplan等学者对此课题进行了深入的研究,并取得了令人瞩目的成果.中英思维方式的差异可以从很多方面进行分类.中国人的思维总的来说是如重意象的直观性,对事物规律的归纳总结和重视主体的感受和内在逻辑性联系的意合,体现为主螺旋型上升趋势,具有明显的模糊性.而英国人的思维方式则重理性与分析性,注重对客体的临摹与再现,所以其思维呈直线状态,具有精确性的特点,强调严谨的外在形式的融合等.当然不同的学者也从其他方面进行了分类.这些思维方式在两个民族的语言上也有充分的体现,从词汇,句法,语义,语法和文体上分别呈现了明显的差异.对这些差异的忽视往往导致中英翻译中出现各种错误,如过于拘泥于原文的字面,忽略两种语言的句法特征,忽略不同的视角和文体特色,或者由于句法差异而导致在目的语的累赘表述等.

为了避免上述问题,本文对思维,语言与文化的关系进行了探讨,并得出了有意义的结论,认为:通常要有充分的文化背景知识,然后采取转换翻译策略,包括词类,词义,句法结构等的转换,同时也可以采取临摹翻译法和反向翻译法等策略.由此可见,思维方式的差异对翻译质量的影响不容忽视,必须采取相应的策略,以提高翻译质量.(400-450字)

[关 键 词]中英思维方式,差异,语言表现,翻译策略

Abstract

Thought,languageandculturearecloselyinterrelated.Languageembodiesthoughtsandthoughtsdominatelanguage,butbothunderthegeneralframeworkofculture.DifferentthinkingmodesoftheChineseandtheWesternershealwaysbeenatopacademicissues.SuchacademiccelebritiesasJiaDejiang,LiuMiqing,R.ScholarandKaplanheconductedsystematicstudiesonitandheyieldedamazingresults.DifferencesinChineseandEnglishthinkingmodescanbeclassifiedinvariousaspects.Chinesethinkingmodestendtofocusonvisualeffects,togeneralize,besubject-oriented,tortuousandfuzzy,andaboveallbeparatactic.TheEnglishthinkingmodesontheotherhandaregenerallyrational,analytical,object-targetedandstraightforwardandtendtobyaccurateandaboveallfocusonhypotaxis.Ofcourseotherscholarayclassifythemfromsomeotheraspects.Thesespecialfeaturesinthinkingmodesarefullymanifestedinthetwolanguages,lexically,syntactically,semantically,grammaticallyandcontextually.Ignoranceofthesefeatureaycausenegativeeffectsontranslationsuchasstubbornrenderingresultingfromignoranceofdifferentsyntacticpreferences,misleadingrenderingduetodifferencesinviewpoints,awkwardtranerringforignoranceofrhetoricpreference,inaccuratetranslationcausedbyimproperdictionorwordydictionregardlessofthesyntacticstructuraldifferences.

Inordertooidtheaboveproblems,thisthesiakesaresearchontherelationshipbetweensThought,languageandculture,onthebasisofwhichaconclusionisreached:sufficientculturalbackgroundinformationwillbehelpfulandstrategiessuchasshiftingtranslation,graphictranslation,backwardtranslationshallbeadopted.Itcanalsobethusconcludedthattranslationcannotaffordtoneglectdifferencesinthinkingmodesandthatthecorrespondingstrategymaygreatlyhelpimprovethetranslationquality.(中文摘 要的对应译文)

[Keywords]ChineseandEnglishthinkingmodes,differences,linguisticembodiment,translationstrategies

Contents

1Introduction等等等等..等等等等等等等等...等等..1

2LiteratureReview等等等等等等等等等等等...等等...2

2.1Aristotelianschool:metaphor—adeviceofrhetoric等等等..等等.2

2.2Theplatonicschool—languageietaphorical等等等.等等等.5

2.3Thestudyofmetaphorfromthe20thcenturytothepresent等等等...等..6

3OnSimilarity等等等等等等等等等等等..等等等7

3.1Similarity:afundamentalcriterionfortheclassificationofmetaphor等...等..7

3.2Similarityandculture等等等等等等等等等等等.9

3.3Similarityandcategory等等等等等.等等等等等等10

3.4Therelationshipbetweensimilarityandknowledge等等等等等.13

4OntheMechaniofMetaphor等等等等等等.等等等...15

4.1Black'sinteractiontheory等等等等等等等等....................15

4.1.1Introductiontotheinteractiontheory等等等等等等等...15

4.1.2Somedefectsoftheinteractiontheory等等等等等等等16

4.2Lakoffianconceptualmetaphortheory等等等等等等等...19

4.2.1ThephilosophicalbasisofLakoffiantheory等等等等等...19

4.2.2Lakoffiantheoryonthemechaniofmetaphor等等等等等21

4.2.3ThedeficienciesofLakoffiantheoryinexpoundingthecreationofsimilarity等等等等.等等等等等等等等等...26

4.3Conceptualintegrationtheory等等等等等等等...等等等.29

4.3.1Anintroductiontotheconceptualintegrationtheory等等等......等....29

4.3.1.1Fourmentalspaces等等等.等等等...等...等等..29

4.3.1.2ThreeprocessesofBT等等等..等等等..等等等..33

4.3.1.3OptimalityprinciplesofBT等等.等等等等...等等.34

4.3.2TheadvantagesofBTinsolvingtheparadoxofthetoformertheories等等等等等等等等等等等等.等...34

4.3.2.1Thegenericmentalspace等等等等等等.等...等...34

4.3.2.2Theblendingspaceandemergentstructure等..等等等..等...35

4.3.2.3TheotheradvantagesofBT等等等..等等..等...等等40

5Conclusion等等等等等等等等等等.等等等等42

Bibliography等等等等等等等等等..等等等等等45

Acknowledgements等等等等等等等等等.等等等等46 1Introduction

Languagebynatureistheembodimentofhumanthoughtsandthoughtsinturnisthementalreflectionoftheworldaroundusonbasisofsomeanalysis,generalization,judgmentandreasoning.Animalshethoughtsaswell,buttheirawkwardsoundormunicationarefarfrombeinglanguage.Languageisthereforecloselyrelatedtoandsupportedbyhumanthoughts.Thatistosay,languagehasnobasioritsexistenceifthereisnothought.Butthoughts,thoughaccessiblebyvarioueans,arebestrepresentedinlanguageandcanthusbestfulfillitsobligationstothespeakersbysuchmeans.Languageasanarbitrary,phoicandmorphologicsemioticandaudiosystemofmunication,haslongbeendefinedashumanandisthusthemostconvincingdistinctivefeaturesofhumanbeingromanimals.

Thethinkingpatternsareoneofthemostimportantcuesinculture.Itiscloselyrelatedtoculturesandembodiesthecharacteristicsofculturalpsychology.Besides,themodesofthinkingalsoarecloselyrelatedtolanguage.Differentmodesofthinkingareembodiedinlanguage.

(i)Therelationshipamonglanguage,cultureandthought

Languageispartofculture.SuchasChineselanguageispartofChineseculture.Eachcountryhasitsownlanguageinaspecificculture.However,theirrelationshipisnotjustbetweenpartandwhole.Languageisthecarrierandcontainedofculture,aanyaspectsofculturecanbeexpressedinlanguage.Asamirrorofculture,languageisstronglyinfluencedandshapedbyculture.Inall,languageandculturearecloselyrelated,eachinfluencesandshapestheother.

Languageisaninstrumentusedinthemunicationofthought.Itiscloselyrelatedtothought,too.Itrepresentsthoughtandisinfluencedbythought.Inturn,thoughtisinfluencedbylanguage.Inaddition,thoughtisdeterminedbyculturalvalue.Theirrelationshipswitheachotherseemmoreplex.Inaword,eachoftheminfluencesandshapesothers.Theyareseenasthreepartsofawhole.

(ii)DifferentwaysofthinkingbetweenChineseandWestern

"Thewaysofthinkingisquitedifferent,actually,peopleliveincertainareahetheirownwayofthinking.Itconnectstovariouskindsoffactors,suchasgeography,history,nationandsoon.Thewaysofthinkingaretheimportantreasonofculturaldifference.Itincludesknowledge,concepts,methods,languageandcustomandsoon."(DengYanchang:1997,483)Thesefactorsinfluenceeachother,whichledtodifferentwaysofthinking.Therefore,thewaysofthinkinghetheirowncharacteristics,likegeographycharacteristics,socialcharacteristicsandnationalcharacteristics,etc.Accordingtogeographycharacteristics,itcanbedividedintoHannation,EnglishandAmericannation,etc.HerewewillmakeaparisononChineseandWesternwaysofthinking.

"Thedifferentwaysofthinkinginfactarethereflectionofculturaldifference.Peoplewholiveindifferentareaoralongtimehedifferentculturalcharacteristics,therefore,theirwaysofthinkingaredifferent."(ibid.484)

Undertheinfluenceofdifferentgeographyenvironments,lifestyles,customsanddifferentculturalvalues,theEastandWestaredifferentfromwaysofthinking.Letusexaminesomephenomena:

Inthecollege,aforeignteacheristeachinginaclass,heistalkativeandexpressive.Everyonelistenstohiminterestingly.Suddenly,hestopsandasksthemaquestion.However,thestudentsdon'tknowhowtoanswer,theydon'ttelltheanswers.Theteachergotalittleangrybuthehadnoideaontheirbehior.ThissceneoftenhappensinChineseclassroom.Intheforeigners'eyes,theyconsiderthatkeepingsilentisnotagoodwaywhenwecontactwithothers.Evenyoudon'tunderstand,youshouldsaysomethinginsteadofkeepingsilent,asitoftenisregardedasrudeandimpolite.

ThereasonliesinthattheEastandtheWestheadifferentwayofthinking.TheEasternpeopleareconservative,introvertandinactive,theyputmoreemphasisonharmony,andtheylikemonandstablelife,whiletheWesternpeoplearemoreopen-minded,extrovertandactive,theylikechangeablelifeandthustheyemphasizeonpetition.Inthisway,theirdifferentwaysofthinkingleadtotheirdifferentunderstandingoneachother'sbehior.IfChineseseesomebodyistalkative,theycouldthinkheorshewantstoextenthimselforherselftobethefocusofeveryone.

InChina,weseldomseeacouplemakingclosecontactinpublic.Theyarealwayswalkingsidebysideinacertaindistance.WhileintheWest,thecouplewillopentothepublic,theyarefreetoshowthattheyareacouple.Eventheymeettheacquaintances,theyalwaysgivethemahugorkissasgreeting.Controversially,Chinesewillshakehandswiththeirfriendsbutseldomhugthem.Theydon'tkissthemastheyregarditasanintimateactionbetweenhusbandandwife. ThereasonwhytheeastandthewestpeoplebehesodifferentlyisthatpeopleliveintheEastemphasizeonethicprincipal,morality,theyfocusondirectfeelingandimage.Thewesternerocusonfreedom,democracyandemphasizeonindividual.

Inall,Chinesetraditionalwayofthinkinghasitsowncharacteristics.Itemphasizesthemorality,harmonyofthesociety,itpromotesthecollectivi,responsibilityanddevotionandsoon.Thewesternwayofthinkingalsohasitsowncharacteristics.Itemphasizesonlogicandscience,individualachievement,itpromoteshumanright,equalityandsoon.

ThegreatgeographicdistancebetweentheBritishandtheChinesepeoples,togetherwiththeacpanyingdifferentlivingconditionsandculturalenvironments,hauchaccountedforthediverseconceptualpatternsofthetwonations.Suchconceptualdifferenceshebeendulyreflectedinandshedgreatinfluenceonthetwolanguages.Translationbetweenthetwolanguagesisconsequentlyfarbeyondlinguisticrendering,butmoreofculturaltranerringandexchangeofconceptualpatterns. 2LiteratureReview

AccordingtoJiaDejiang,"thinkingpatterns,thoughtcharacteristicsandthinkingstylesarethephilosophicalmechanioflanguageproduction.Languageactuallyattachescloselytothethoughtthatistheprofoundmechani."(JiaDeJiang:2002,166)Thinkingpatternsarethedeep-rootedmechaniintheformulationanddevelopmentoflanguage,whichinturnpromotesthespecialtiesincertainconceptualpatterns.Languageisthecarrierofreflectionandabstractionofreality,andmodeofthoughtistheconsciousactivitywhenpeoplereflectandrecognizetheobjectivereality.Thedifferencesbetweenthinkingpatternsarethemainreasonsthatresultinthedifferencesoflanguageforms,sothestudyofthetransitionbetweendifferentlanguagesshouldbeginwiththestudyofmodesofthoughtincloseconnectionwiththeculturesandthelanguages.

Anotherwell-recognizedChineselinguisticscholarLiuMiqinghasofferedapparentlydifferentbutessentiallysimilarremarksontherelationsbetweenlanguageandthought.Hisstandingisthatmodesofthoughthascontrolledoverlanguages(ibid.35),andthatlanguagesaretheconcretemanifestationofmodesofthought.

English-Chinesemodesofthoughthetheirowncharacteristicsinthinkingcore,thinkingpattern,cognitionhabitsandthinkingprinciples.AsatoolformunicationthebasicattributeofEnglishandChinesearethesame.Butbecauseoftheinfluenceoftheirowncultures,therearemanydifferencesbetweenthetwo.TheEnglishindividualiandtheChineseentirety,hypotaxisasagainstparataxis,aspassivevs.active,staticvs.dynamic,andimpersonalvs.personal,helongbeenrecognizedasthemostdistinctivefeaturesofthetwoconceptualpatternswhicharejustifiedbytheapparentlydifferentculturesandlivingmethods.AsEugeneNidaonceputsit,themostimportantdifferentcharacteristicbetweenChineseandEnglishisthedifferenceofparataxisandhypotaxis.(ZhangSijie&,ZhangBoran:1995,261)LiuMiqingholdstheopinionthathypotaxisandparataxisarethe"uniquecharacteristic"forEnglishandChinese.(ibid.13)Conceptualpattern,ormodeofthought,iseryplicatedabstractconceptionconnectedcloselytophilosophy.Englishpeoplepreferindividuali,whichleadtotheirsubordinatingtherecognizedobjectsintoallparts.WhileChinesepeoplelikeentirety,theyprefertotaketheworldasawhole.Thinkingpatternshebeenclearlyreflectedonlanguages,asaresultofwhichEnglishishypotacticandChineseisparatactic.

Allmetaphors,Aristotlebelieves,fallintoatleastoneofthesefourcategories,althoughanalogymetaphorsarethemostpleasing.Aristotlealsoholdsthatmetaphorcanmaketheprosaicstylecharming,andstressesthatitcanonlybeconfinedtopoetry(ibid.72).Thisperspectiveleadstothelatertheoristakingdistinctionbetweenpoeticlanguageandeverydaylanguage.EspeciallyinChapter21and22ofPoetics,Aristotlestatesthateveryword"iseithercurrent,orstrange,ormetaphor,orornamental,ornewlycoined,orlengthened,orcontracted,oraltered"(ibid.70).ItisobviousthatAristotleclassifieetaphorsaslyingoutsidenormallanguageuse.Theyaredeviantoraberrantformsofdiscourse.Healsoholdsthatmetaphorhasnocognitivevalueandierelyanembellishmentoflanguage(Kittay,1965:1).AlsointhischapterofPoetics,heelaborateshowmetaphorsareunusualanddiscussestherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandgenius,viewingmetaphorasatalentofepicpoetsandtragedians:

Thegreatestthingbyfaristoheamandofmetaphor.Thisalonecannotbeimportedbyanother,itisthemarkofgenius—fortomakegoodmetaphorsimpliesaneyeforresemblances(Aristotle,1890:72).

R.KaplanfoundthatintheirEnglishwritingEnglishlearnersofdifferentnationsshownationaltendenciesinaccuratecorrespondencewiththeirnativetongueandnationalthinkingpatterns.Forinstance,theChineseandtheKoreanlearnersarespiralwhilethenativeEnglishlearnersaremorestraightforward,andthoseofLatin(FrenchandSpanish)culturalbackgroundaretortuousinapproachingthetheme,theRussianstendtobeparallelandsegmentalandthoseofArabianandHebrewdisplayparallelthinkingmodes.Inthisaspect,aChinesescholarZhangDaishaninhisChineseThinkingTendencies(Zhangetal.1991,36)summarizesthedifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseinthreeaspects:unitvs.opposite,integrityandanicvs.concreteandmechanicalaswellascirculativevs.straightforward,withtheformercharacteristicofChinesewhilethelattertypicalofEnglish.TheyholdthatChinesearecharacterizedintheirthinkingpatternsbytheirintrospection,pursueofsimilarity,circulation,stabilizationandvisualrepresentation.AnotherChinesescholarZhangGuangminginhisConceptualThinkinginTranslationbetweenEnglishandChinese(ZhangGuangming,2001,126)concludesthatsuchdifferencesarebestdisplayedinfouraspects,E.g.linguisticconcept,prehensionvs.reasoning,prehensivevs.analyticandunityvs.oppositeness.LianShunenginhisessay"OntheThinkingPatternsoftheChineseandtheWesterners"developsthedifferencesintotenaspects.(LianShuneng:2002,87)

AccordingtoRongKaiming(1989,30),thinkingmodesrefersto"anestablishedsystemofthinkingpatterns,thinkingmethodsandthinkingproceduresofthesubjectintheirreflectionoftheobjectiveworld."Thoughtisaintrinsicprocessofhumanbrainsinunderstandingandmemorizingthephysicalaswellasnon-physicalworldthatwelivein,andisaspecialanicfunctionofthebrain.Thecloseinterrelationbetweenlanguageandthoughtfurtherdenotesthelinguisticdifferencesbetweendifferentnationsastherealizationoftheirthinkingmodesorconceptualmodes.Thereforedifferentlanguagesofdifferentnationscanwellexplaintheirdifferentthinkingmodes.AsFuLeionceputit,"等theEasternersareessentiallydifferentfromtheWesternersintheirthinkingmodes.TheEasternerstendtobegeneral,inductive,implicitanddenotativewhiletheWesternersaremoreanalytic,intricateanddetailedanddescriptive.Thetwomentalitiescanhardlybebined.(FuLei:1995,521).Inthissense,translationbetweenEnglishandChineseisapparentlyalinguistictransitionbutessentiallymentaltranerringbetweentwothinkingmodes.Toomuchpracticeheprovedthatsuchtranerringofthinkingmodesarenotonlynecessaryandapplicablebutalsoanefficientmeanstopursuequalitytranslation.

Sofarmuchhasbeendoneandsaidontheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandmodesofthought(orconceptualpatterns,aspreferredinthepresentthesis).ThemostoutstandingisSapir-Whorfhypothesis.Muchcriticizedthough,thehypothesisioretrustworthyinthatitoffersanewinsightintotheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought.Itsstronersion,theso-called"languagerelativity",holdsthatlanguagehasdeterminingeffectsonmodesofthought,whichiormedrelativelytolanguagesanddifferentlanguageswillbringondifferentthinkingpatterns(ZhaoXia&,XuRuifeng:1992,35)isstillmoreoftenthannotatopicofdebateinthelinguisticmunitywhichconvincinglyprovesitarking-stonesignificanceinlanguagestudy.(WangWuxing:2004,68)

3DifferencesBetweenChineseandEnglishThinking

Modes

Asdiscussedabove,differencesbetweentheChineseandtheEnglishintheirthinkingpatternsareobviousamongscholar.Thedifferencesamongscholars'attitudesorclassificationofthethinkingpatternsbetweenthetwonationsarenotessentiallydiversifiedbutratherlieinthedegreeofdetailedtypology.Actually,theissuecanbeapproachedandconsideredfromvariousviewpoints.Herearebutafewinstanceorillustration.

3.1DifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishthinkingpatterns

3.1.1.Visualthinkins.rationalthinking

Thevisualizedthinkingmode,orempiricalsynthesizesthinkingpatternasZhengYanhong(ZhengYanhong,2003,51)putsit,establishestheessentialdifferencebetweentheChineseandtheEnglishnationwhoforstherationalanalyticthinkingmodes.TheChineseisperceptualintheirprehensivethought,buttheEnglishandotherWesternnationslayhedevelopedtheirownrationalandanalyticthinkingmodes.Intheempiricalprehensivethinking,thehumanandthenature(includingsociety)areconsideredasananicwhole,withthe"beautygathers"(ortheunionofheenandhuman)asitsbasiccharacteristic.Thedoctrineof"yinandyangasone"(or"masculineandfeminineelementsinonebody")intheChinesephilosophy,notdenyingtheoppositionthough,laysgreateremphasisontheaspectofunity.ButtheseparationofGodandhuman(ortheisolationoftheheenlyfromtheearthly)intheEnglishandtheWesternersphilosophystressestheoppositionaspectthoughnotobviouslydenyingtheunity.Suchdifferencehasbeentypicalofthetwodifferentthinkingmodes.TheChinesestressesthewholeandabstract,andtheWesternersstresstheponentsandthespecific,theChineseforsynthesiswhiletheWesternersanalysis.Forinstance,whentalkingabouttime,theChinesealwaysstartfromgeneralunitsandmoveontoallerunits,buttheEnglishisopposite,andthisisalsotrueoftheirexpressionoflocations.Evenintheiracquaintanceintroduction,theChinesewouldlistthetitles(whole)first(fromthehighertothelower)beforereferringtothespecificnames(individual),buttheEnglishwouldannouncethespecificnamefirst(individual),thenlistasuccessionofdutieromthelowertothehigher.

Thewesterners,esp.theEnglish,hebeenaccustomedtofuzzythinkingsincetheancientagesunderthephilosophicaldoctrinesoftheancientGreekandRomanthinkers.Insuchphilosophicalconcept,logicandformaltestimonyisthechiefconcernandconcepts,judgmentandreasoningdominatethethinkingproceduresandthusgreatemphasishasbeenlaidontheobscurereflectionontheworldaroundus.That'swhyvariousconcepts,methodsandprinciplesaboundinwesternphilosophyandessays.

TheChinese,ontheotherhand,seemmoreforiteofconcreteimagesandtendtoreflectontheworldfromtheviewpointofspecificobjects.Theywouldratherdescribetheobjectstogeneralizedprinciplesandinspirations.ThattogreatextentaccountortheimagethinkingmodesoftheChinese.Forexample,

E.g.1a.Butthisveryformulationisindicativeoftheunderstandingattitude.

E.g.1b.但这一说法本身就清楚地表明了其基本态度.

E.g.2a.Hiswearinessandincreasingheatdeterminedhimtositdowninthefirstconvenientshade.

E.g.2b.他疲惫不堪,天气也越来越炎热,于是他下定决心一碰到舒适的阴凉处就坐下休息.

E.g.3a.Shortnessoftimehasrequiredtheomissionofsomecountries.

E.g.3b.由于时间不够,他取消了对某些国家的访问.

Intheabovespecimenof1a,2aand3a,thesubjectsarenotanypersonorobjectbutrathersomestateorconceptsalthoughthesentencesaremoreperson-oriented.YetintheChineseversion,thepersonsconcernedareusedasthesubjectstodirectlyrevealthespeaker'sconcern.

EvenwhentheChinesemeantoexpresssomeattitudeorimpression,theymaynotstateitdirectlybutratherusemetaphororindicationsbymeansofsomespecificimages.Forexample,

E.g.4a.Hehadsacrificedwithlessvisibilityinthepolicydecision.

E.g.4b.在决策过程中,他已经不那么抛头露面了.

E.g.5a.我的心里七上八下的.

E.g.5b.Therearesevenupsandeightdownsinmyheart

E.g.5c.Mymindisgreatlyupset.

Theconceptof"visibility"in4aisreplacedbytheimageexpressionof"抛头露面"in4binwhich"头"(head)and"面"(face)areusedtoshowhispresenceorvisibilityintheoccasions.In5aand5b,thespecificnumbersof"七"(seven)and"八"(eight)inChinesearereplaceby"upset"inEnglishbecausetheChinesephrase"七上八下"justusethetwonumberstovividlydescribethegetchaosinthespeaker'ind.Yet5b,thedirectrenderingsoundratherconfusingtoEnglishreadersaewofthemcanunderstandwhytherearesuchthingsas"sevenupsandeightdowns"inaperson'ind.

Suchinstancesarejustabundantinourdailyspeech,nottomentionthenumerousclassicessaysandliterarymasterpiecesandESTpapers.

3.1.2Generalizingthinkins.analyticalthinking

ThedifferencesofphilosophyandculturalbackgroundbetweenEnglishandChineseheresultedintherethinkingoftheHannationalityasanentiretythinkingcountryandtheEnglishpeopleindividualcharacteristicsofthinking.

TheChinesepeopleareconcernedmorewiththeirownbodiesinexpressingemotions,sointuitionthinkingisthemainfeatureoftheirmodeofthought,forwhichpeoplestudyobjectsasawholeandemphasizeentirety.Chinesephilosophyissystematicalnaturali.(MaoGuirong:2005,420)

IntheEnglishthinkingpattern,individualiisgreatlyemphasized.TheEnglishpeoplelinktheirownemotiontoplaaryinfluenceandthenaturalelements,sotheypreferanalyticallogicthinking.Targetobjectsaresubordinatedintoallpartsinordertobescrutinized,which,ofcourse,mayleadthemtoplacetheponentsbeforethewholewhentheytrytoknowsomething.(ibid.420)

Fromthehistoricalviewpoint,wecaneasilyfindthattheHannationalityhaslongestablishedsuchthinkingmodesevensincetheancientages.TheBookofChangesputforwardtheframeworkforthetheoryofentiretywhichconsidersthenaturalphenomenonandthehumanaffairsasawhole.That'swhythebookproposestopredicthumanfortunesbyyinandyangpolesconsistingoftheeight(andlaterfurtherdevelopedintosix-four)gua(divinatorysymbols)system.Suchadoctrinewaslaterperfectedbydaoiinitschaoticandpurestatus,bytaijiinitsdaoandreasoning,andthenbymetaphysics,Buddhi,andbyrationalioftheSongDynasty.That'swhyintheChineselanguage,sensehasalwaysbeenthedominatorwhiletheexpressionformshasbeenmuchneglected.ButtheWesterners,esp.theBritishnationhasalwaysstressedanalysisandrationalityintheirthinking.Intheirminds,individualiistheprimeconcernandisalwaysdependent,whichhasresultedintheirdualisticphilosophy.Followingsuchperceptions,materialsandspiritsareseparated,justlikehumanandnature,contentandform.SuchthinkingmodescandatebacktoDecartes'conceptionelementaliandlaststoRussell'slogicalelementali,whichhasgreatlycontributedtothetypologiesinnaturalsciencesinthelate1500sEuropewhichtendstosegmentthenatureandallobjectstotheinfiniteallerunits.Inmodernlinguistics,theICanalysishascutourlanguagetomorpheme.Forexample,

E.g.6a.尽管她很年轻,但她懂的东西比你多.

E.g.6b.Youngassheis,sheknoworethanyou.

E.g.6c.Thoughsheisyoung,sheknoworethanyouknow.

E.g.7a.她气的连话都说不出来.

E.g.7b.Soangrywasshethatshecouldn'tspeak.

E.g.7c.Shewassoangrythatshecouldn'tspeak.

E.g.8a.只有这样才能解决问题.

E.g.8b.Onlyinthiswaycanyousolvetheproblem.

E.g.8c.Theproblemcanonlybesolvedthisway.

TheChinesesentencesclearlydemonstratethedifficultyinunderstandingChinesewithoutnecessarygeneralization.6c,7cand8careliteraltranslationofChinese,aostChineselearnersofEnglishmoreoftenthannotwoulddo.SuchtranslationsrevealthattheChineselearnerstendtogeneralizetheEnglishexpressionswithoutsufficientattentiontotheanalyticalnatureofthetargetlanguage.

SimilarinstancejustaboundinbothEnglishandChineseliteratureatvariouslevelsrangingfromdiction,semanticconnotation,denotation,syntacticstructurestocontextualpreferences.Itisabsoluteunnecessaryandimpossibletolistthemonebyonehere.

3.1.3Subject-orientedthinkins.object-targetedthinking

Itisalsocategorizedasintentthoughtandthecognitionthought.TheChinesehabituallytakethepersonorsubjectastheobjectintheirintentthoughtwhiletheWesternerstendtotakethenatureastheobjectfortheircognitivethought.Theintentthoughtisintroverted,thecontraction,emphasizesthemainbody,thereforeChineselinearitydelaysextremelylimitedly,warequentlycounter(fronthaspointedout),Thecognitionthoughtistheextroversion,theradiation,theemphasisobject,thereforeEnglishextremelylittlecounterextendstheexpansion.ThuslinguistMr.WangLispokeChineseistherulebypeoplelanguage,Englishisthegovernmentbylawlanguage.Chineseexpressesthesubjecttakethemainbodyasthecenterwithtostatethetopictherelations,butfrequentlydoesnotindicateinitiativeorpassive,theprominentsubjectthenon-subject,oftenisthesubjectwithstatesthetopicpoundadvancement,thuulti-shortphrases,simplesentences(withoutclauses),Thesubjectcustomperson,usessendsoutthemovementonowninitiativeorhasthingofthelifetofillapositionthesubject,thusthemulti-verbs,fortheverb.Englishoftenusescannotsendoutthemovementorthelifelessthingwordsandexpressionsonowninitiativemakesthesubject,passivesentence,lonerse,poundsentence,Asentencebeesthestraightlinedevelopmenttakeerbasthecenter,thusthemulti-nouns,forthenoun,multipurposefunctionwordsandsoonpreposition,conjunction.Forexample,

E.g.9a.托马斯·杰弗逊对美国的教育事业做出了巨大的贡献.

E.g.9b.AmericaneducationwasagreatdebttoThomasJefferson.

E.g.10a.AcademicallythefactthatinsectscouldbesterilizedbyexposuretoX-rayhadbeenknownsince1916,whenanentomologistbythenameofG.A.Runnerreportedsuchsterilizationofcigarettesbeetles.

E.g.10b.1916年,一位名叫G.A.朗纳的昆虫学家报告说,可以通过X光照射使烟草甲虫不育,从那时起,人们就已经从理论上知道可以这样使昆虫失去生育能力.

E.g.11a.Anotherideasuddenlystruckme.

E.g.11b.我突然想到另一个主意.

E.g.12a.Thesecondworldwarbroughthimrapidbattlepromotion.

E.g.12b.他在二战中屡建战功,晋升很快.

TheaboveEnglishsentences,withtheabstractsubjects,soundquitenaturaltoEnglishreaders,butwouldsoundquiteawkwardtotheChinesereadersifliterallytranerredintoChinese.TheChinesetranslation,ontheotherhand,beginswiththepersonalsubjectandsoundsquiteoothandprehensibletotheChinesereaders.

3.1.4Tortuousthinkins.straightthinking

IntheWesternphilosophy,ithasbeenalastingconventiontopursuealternatecontrastinitsreasoning,thusestablishingastraightforwardthinkingmode.ButtheChinese,ontheotherhand,hebeenmoreaccustomedtotheharmonyandunityoftheworld,esp.thatbetweenthenatureandthehumans,andaremorelikelytoadoptbothsidesofamatter,thusestablishingatortuousthinkingmode.Asreflectedintheirspeech,theEnglishtendtosticktothepointattheverybeginningofthespeech,offeringastraightandfrankthemeofthespeechbeforeproceedingontopresenttherelevantdetailsandacpanyingsituations.Thatmaywellaccountforthesyntacticfeaturesofapactheadandalongandheyendingwiththeemphasisatthefrontpartofthesentences.AndtheChinesesentences,duetothespeakers'thinkingmodes,willpresenttherelativeinformationingreatdetailbeforehittinguponthetheme,areaboundinexpressionswithalongheadwithashortending.Forexample,

E.g.13a.Imetwithmymiddleschoolmateattheentranceofthetheaterat7:30yesterdayevening,whenIhen'tseenforyears.

E.g.13b.昨天晚上7点半在剧院门口,我遇到了我多年未见的中学同学.

Inconsequenceofsuchthinkingmodes,theChinesewouldanizetheirspeechinlogicorderbytellingthecausesbeforedescribingtheconsequences,andofferingsomeprepositionsbeforethedeductivereasoning,anddescribingthefactsbeforeofferingthespeaker'sattitude.Andeveninthespaciousorsequentialorder,theytendtolistfromthemoregeneraltothemorespecific.Aorthesequenceofimportanceorsignificance,it'snotdifficulttoseewhytheywouldbeginwiththemostimportantorsignificantandthenmoveontothelessimportantorlesssignificant.TheEnglishspeakers,withtheassistanceofconjunctionsandprepositions,canbemoreflexiblethantheChineseinthisaspect.

E.g.14a.Hedidn'tebecausehewasill

E.g.14b.他因为下雨而没来.

E.g.15a.Andthereareotherswhosaytheirsuspicionswerearousedovertime,asthe55-year-oldMr.Williams,whoappearedonweekendsturnedoutinfinesuits,broughtuppropertybyproperty.

E.g.15b.也有人说他们的怀疑与日俱增,因为55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,写下一笔又一笔地产.

E.g.15c.55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,写下一笔又一笔地产,因此,也有人说他们越来越怀疑了.(ZhangPing:1996,82)

Andinstillanotheraspect,theChinesewoulddealwiththereadyinformationbeforediscussingtheunknowninformation,followingatrailfromthespeakertothefurtherworldaroundhim.Thisisividreflectionoftheirpracticallivingstyles.AsZhaoWeijun(1997,86)putsit,50%oftheChinesesentencesorspeecheollowtheorderofknowntounknown.Forexample,

E.g.16a.Whatonearthdoyoumeanbytalkingabouttheseatthatmomentwhenwewereallinhighspirits

E.g.16b.当大家兴高采烈时,你却谈论这些问题,到底什么意思

E.g.17a.Ithinkasuccesuloldageiseasiestforthosewhohegreatimpersonalinterestsinvolvingappropriateactivities.

E.g.17b.我认为,如果老年人对于个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动,他们的晚年是最容易过的好的.(YangSheying,etal.,2016,70)

IntheEnglishversionin16aand17a,theEnglishspeakerfocusesontheleadingconcept(orthespeaker'sconcern)attheverybeginningofthesentencesbeforepresentingthereadyinformation.YettheChineseversionin16band17b,theChinesespeakerbeginswiththereadyinformation("大家兴高采烈"in16band"老年人对个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动"in17b)beforetouchingthosedistantinformation.

3.1.5.Fuzzythinkins.accuratethinking

Fuzzythinkingioreemphaticofthegeneralimpressionorthegeneralprincipleofreflectionandisnotsomuchconcernedwiththespecificdetailsoftheobjectsortherelativeinformation.That'oretypicaloftheChinesethanoftheWesterners,esp.theEnglish.TheChinesehaslongbeeninfluencedbysuchafuzzyphilosophy.Evenintheremoteclassic"LaoZi",dao(principle)hasbeenassumedasthegeneraloriginoftheworldandheen.Butthebookdescribeddaoassomethingfuzzyandshakywithoutanyembodimentandyetwithreferencetoandimplicativeofeverythingunderthesun.TheninZhuangZi'sarguments,daowaurtherappliedtoexplaintherelationshipamongthingsintheworld,inwhichunityandharmonyamongallobjects(includinghumanbeings)wasgreatlyextended.AccordingtoZhuangZi,theworldaroundusisinprehensibleindetailbutperceivableingeneral.ThisisvividlyembodiedintheChineselanguage.Forinstance,thereisnoarticleinChinese.Whenwerefertosomespecialitems,thereaderoraudiencehetoguesswhichspecialitemisbeingreferredtoinlightofthecontext.Anotherinstanceistheomissionofnumericalbeforenouns,E.g."冰箱里有鸡蛋和西红柿"—Thereareeggsandpotatoesinthefreezer.ButhowmanyarethereinitNowheretolearn.StillanotherexampleisthecontextualcohesioninChinesedependsheilyontheinternalrelationshipbetweenparagraphsandsentences,andconjunctionsorprepositionsareoftenunailable.E.g."他吃完饭去了学校"—Hefinishedmealwenttoschool(Hewenttoschoolafterdinner).

TheEnglish,incontrast,laygreatemphasisontheaccuracyofdescriptionandspeech.Suchthinkingmodesarealsodeeprootedintheirphilosophicalconvention.Thewesternershealwaysshownmoreinterestinscienceandtechnologythatdemandaccuracyandprecisionandobjectiveness.Andsohebeentheirlanguages.Whenevertheytalkaboutsomething,theytrytobeaccurateandsyntacticallywell-constructedandtherearemorefunctionalwordsinEnglishthaninChineseessays.

InChineseweheaword"气"(qi)—物质之气,人生性命之气,能动的实体之气,正气.ButhowshallweunderstandtheseqiinEnglishActuallytheyaregreatlydiversifiedinmeaning,referringtomaterialforce,air,vitality,vitalenergyandintegrity.

E.g.18a:此刻自己也跟了进去,一则宝玉不便,二则黛玉嫌疑.罢了,倒是回来的妙.(《红楼梦》第七十二回)

E.g.18b:IfIgoinnowafterhim,heissuretofeelembarrassedandsheissuretostartimaginethings.Itwouldbebettertogobackwithoutseeingher.(Chapter72,ADreaminRedMansions)

It'snotdifficulttoseethattheChineseversionisquiteobscureinmanycases."跟了进去"—followinside,butfollowwhomTheauthordoesn'ttellasit'snotnecessarytotellinChineseandit'suptothereadertounderstandfromthecontext.ButtheEnglishversionputsitclearly—"afterhim,Baoyu".Whatdoes"不便"(inconvenient)meanhereWhatkindofinconvenienceisitAndwhatkindof"嫌疑"(suspicion)isreferredtoTheChineseversionisquiteambiguousandevenconfusing.Butthereadercanunderstandit.YetitshouldnotbeliterallyrenderedintoEnglish.InsteadtheabovequestionsarebothansweredintheEnglishversion."不便"(inconvenient)meansBaoyu'sembarrasenttotalklovetohisloveinfaceofathirdperson.And"嫌疑"(suspicion)referstoDaiyu'ssuspicionofBaoyu'ssincerityinhislove—whyshouldBaoyugetsomeonearoundifhereallymeanstoexpresshistruelovetoherDaiyumayimaginethatBaoyuhasgottheguyaroundonpurpose—findreasonsnottoexpresshisloveforherbecausehehasnoloveforheratall.SotheEnglishversionreads"starttoimaginethings",asvividrepresentationoftheChineseversion.

3.1.6Hypotaxisvs.parataxis

Thedifferencesbetweenhypostasisandparataxishehelpedtoformthetwolanguagestheirownstyles.

IntheparisonsandtheorystatedaboveweheknownthatEnglishuseanyconjunctions,prepositionsandotherconnectivemeanstomakelinksbetweenphrasesandwords,becauseofwhichthelanguageiorelogicalandbetteranized.SoMaoRongguiholdstheopinionthatEnglishisakindoflanguagethatiullofvirilequalities,forthecharacteroflinearlogic,anizationandration,whichhasledittobe"masculinity".(LarryA.Samovar:1999,420)

Ontheotherhand,Chinesehasgotitsownbeauty,whichdoesn'tpaytoomuchattentiontologicaldescriptionoftheobjectivereality.Furthermore,itisnotclingingwiththecriterionofthelanguagestructure.Chineseisakindoflanguagethatshowsthecharacterof"femininity",andthecharmingofitliesinitsloosestructure.(HuWenzhong:2001,420)

Fromtheparisonsabovewemayseethatthedifferencesbetweenhypotaxisandparataxisheresultedinthedifferentsentencestructuresandlanguageexpressionforms.Theformingofthesedifferences,inmyopinionmustbetracedbacktothediversityoftheirthinkingpatterns,fortheyarecloselyconnectedwiththewaytorecognizetheworldandtojudgewhatisthemostimportant.Forexample,

E.g.19a.你学习努力,就能通过考试,不努力就通不过考试

E.g.19b.Youwillworkhardandyoucanpasstheexams.Youwon'tworkhardandyouwillfailintheexams.

E.g.19c.Ifyouworkhard,youwillpasstheexam,otherwiseyou'llfail.

E.g.20a.他是个很有经验的商人,他从事外贸好多年了.

E.g.20b.Heisanexperiencedbusinesan.Hehasengagedinforeigntradeformanyyears.

E.g.20c.Heisanexperiencedbusinesanbecausehehasengagedinforeigntradeformanyyears.

E.g.21a.他们之间了解的多一些,相处得就好一些了.

E.g.21b.Nowthattheyknowmoreabouteachother,theygetonbetter.

TheabovespecimensareconvincingenoughindemonstratinghowtheChineseemphasizehypotaxisintheirspeechwhiletheEnglisharemoreparataxis-considerate.

3.1.7Someotherclassifications

Asdifferentscholarayapproachthisissuefromdifferentviewpoints,thedifferencesbetweentheChineseandEnglishthinkingmodescanbefurthercategorizedinsomeotheraspects.Actuallytherearesomanyfactorstoconsiderindistinguishingthethinkingmodesofthetwonationsthatitisneitherpracticalnornecessarytodiscussthemallhere.Thefewbriefedbelowarejustafewsandsontheseashore.

A.Backwardthinkins.predictivethinking

IthasbeenfoundthattheChinesetendtoconsidermattersinpredicativeorderwhiletheEnglishprefersbackwardthinking.(ZhouF

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